Decision Making Ethic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Decision Making Ethic - Essay Example Ethical dilemmas ften invlve uncertainty and, when rights and duties are in cnflict, it is difficult t find guidance. Ethics is receiving wide-ranging discussin in tday's ppular press as well as in accunting literature. Many accuntants find themselves perplexed by these arguments because they have nt been expsed t a practical methd f dealing with ethical dilemmas. N frmal training and few pprtunities in everyday wrking life have been prvided fr accuntants n a sustained basis. Greek ecnmic, philsphical, religius, legal, business, scial, and ther prblem areas and prpsed slutins are fund in their legal cdes and in their religius and philsphic writings (Frederick 62). The Scratic philsphers and military are the chief surces f the ecnmic, business, and scial thught f that day; their writings are intertwined with philsphy, ethics, and plitics. T btain a better feel fr precisely what impact these early writers and thinkers had n present day management and ethical, mral, and scial practices, tw f these Greek writers will be examined. First, the writings f Plat (427B.C. - 347B.C.) and then Aristtle (384B.C. -- 322B.C.) will be examined. The scpe f Plat's and Aristtle's writings was wide and represented the general thinking and beliefs f the Greek philsphers f that time; they delved int the ecnmic and scial system in its parts, hw it shuld wrk, and hw it shuld be used t achieve the desired gals and bjectives (Buchhlz and Rsenthal 62). Even thugh the early Greek and ther cultures have had a prfund influence n tday's business activity and scial respnsiveness, they run a far secnd t the impact that the Hebrew and Christian religins have had n ttal wrk, ethics, mrals, and scial respnsiveness. In many areas the Hebrew and Christian appraches t the ethical, mral, business, human, and scial prblems were cnsiderably different frm that f the Greeks and ther cultures (Dnaldsn 70). With the cllapse f the Rman Empire, the early and mid-perid saw the grwth f the feudal system, the grwth and increasing pwer f the Cathlic church, and the teachings f its fremst spkesman: Saint Thmas Aquinas. The feudal system existed in the latter days f the Rman Empire in a scattered frm and grew rapidly during the Dark Ages as a means f selfpreservatin and prtectin fr many f the prer peple. In rder t secure prtectin frm murder, rbbery, and vilence, many f the peple sld themselves int a level f subservience, including the lss f their individual freedm, t the peple wh were mre pwerful than they were and wh culd ffer them sme frm f prtectin (ppenheim 45). This "in between" grup was referred t by sme as the frerunners f ecnmic liberalism. In reviewing these peple and grups it shuld be nted that as mvement is made int the latter part f the perid and int the study f the views, philsphies, and writings f sme f the ecnmists, ther than fr the physicrats, there is a marked decrease in emphasis placed n the equality f mankind and the helping f ne's fellw man. The 1930s signaled a transitin frm a primarily laissez-faire ecnmy with industrial pwer and might in cntrl t a mre mixed ecnmy with unins and gvernment taking a

Apparel Industry Essay Example for Free

Apparel Industry Essay * Silk Steps by step process of manufacturing garments Design/sketch: In the process of manufacturing, sketching take place designs of cloths and their details are sketched. Pattern design: The pattern drafting method is used for the designing a pattern and the purpose of making this pattern is to create the sample garment. Sample making: The pattern is then sending to the sewing department so they will assemble it into a garment, this is usually stitched on calico or muslin which is an inferior quality of fabric and it reduces cost. Production pattern: This is used for huge production garment. The patterns of garments can be made by two methods CAD/CAM methods because they are consider as easiest method of designing pattern. Pattern grading: Grading is the process used for sized pattern. It is used for moving and adjusting the pattern for multiple sizes. Spreading and cutting: After grading and relaxing the fabric it will be cut  into equal pieces and then spread manually or by controlled system. Lastly the fabric is cut into the shape of the garment forms. Embroidery or screen printing: Embroidery and printing of designs took place only if it is said by the customers. Embroidery is done by using computerized equipment; each production line may include 10 to 20 embroidery stations. Sewing: Number of labor is indulging in the sewing process; this labor transforms the pieces of fabrics into designer garments. Garments are sew in an assembly line as it progresses down it get completed.

Public Relations And Business Ethics Management Essay

Public Relations And Business Ethics Management Essay Literally Public relations mean relations with publics, e.g. customer, employees, investors, communities, media, suppliers, government, industry bodies, pressure groups, competitors etc. It is defined as the management of communication between an organization and its publics (Grunig and Hunt 1984, p.6 McElreath 1996). PR is the discipline that looks after organizations reputation, maintains its public image and facilitates relations in order to gain understanding and support as well as influence opinion and behavior (McElreath 1996, Ciprco.uk). It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organization and its public (Cipr.co.uk). For an organisation, there are varying functions of public relations. The 4 main areas are first, marketing communication, by which PR is used as a promotional tool to help achieve marketing objectives. The second area is financial public relations, by which it present information to business reporters. The third comes to product public relations, which aim to gain publicity for companys product and service and lastly, crisis public relations which concentrate on the responding to negative information. Other areas of PR practise include building rapport with investor and community, employee, media and government (Rubel, 2007). Thus it can be seen that PR can complement advertising and marketing but it has its own identity as a profession Public relations also involve in assessing and supervising public attitudes as well as maintaining mutual understanding and relations between an organization and its public. To provides exposure to its audiences, public relations practitioners use third-party endorsement such as topics of public interest which do not associate with direct payment (Seitel, 2007). Some wildly used PR tools include press releases, media kits, brochures, newsletters, annual reports and interactive social media. Common PR activities include working with the media, speaking at conferences, crisis communication and employee communication. By responding to the stakeholders expectations and harmonizing their interests with the organization, PR serves as an intermediary. Effective PR will help the organization to convey information and message to its public improve communication channels and develop new ways to encourage two-way communication thus crafting its public image and public awareness in order to increase patronage of its product. Why has ethics become a central issue for PR field in recent years? The initiative that corporations should be ethical and socially responsible began in 1960s. It was a time that businesses were growing rapidly and internationally (Lantos, 2001). The danger associates with corporations unethically pursuing profit and social power has heightened public awareness. In recent times, it has also been seen that some of the most famous companies lost public confidence from the publicity because of their dishonourable behaviours. Examples include Shell contributed to environmental degradation; Nike operated sweatshops in developing countries and the once top corporations such as Worldcom and Enron the collapse because of fault. Apart from destroying individual companys reputation, these scandals raised questions of corporate credibility and shaken public confidence in the entire global business. Public relations, as a communications function, has a major role in disclosing the company financial and other critical information as well as the management of relationships between the organisation and its key stakeholders. Thus ethical dilemmas are especially common in Public practices because PR always need to handle highly sensitive and controversial matters. Besides, the complicated and different levels (interpersonal, organisational and societal) of relationships which PR always engaged with will often incur conflicting expectations and interests between different publics. Therefore it is sometimes quiet difficult for PR professionals can act ethically and to get a balance between being an advocator of external and internal publics and at the same time, taking care of companys interests. However, it should be noted that maintaining ethical standards and values is the key to the establishment of good relationships with clients, employees and media (Baskin Aronoff, 1992: 88). Harlow emphasized the importance of ethical communication by highlighting that it is PR practitioners duty to serve public interest (Vithakamontri, 1991:19). The importance of ethics is associated with the positive relationship between good public relations and business success. Ethical and socially responsible companies are proved to enjoy better relations with its public (Baker, 2004). Companies with ethical conduct might appear to succeed at first, but often it can be found that they suffer from poor public relations in a longer term. In 2002, WorldComm admitted falsifying its income statements and became the biggest bankrupt company ever. The scandal wave soon swept away other corporate giants such as HealthSouth, Tyco and Auther Anderson and brought jail terms to many, even homemaking icon Martha Steward. On the other hand, many corporations create a critical source of competitive advantage-a climate of acceptance for the organisation by being ethical and engaging actively with CRS activities. Corporate social responsibility can serve as a way to strategically differentiate itself from the competitors. Like the Co-operative Group, Body Shop and American Apparel, they build customer loyalty based on distinctive ethical values (Pieczka, 2001) and they do benefit from building a reputation for integrity. Besides, some of them do it through working with local communities to help educate children and develop skills for adults in Flower Valley, Africa. Starbuck and Marks and Spencer also actively help the African community by guaranteeing fair trade purchases. Another approach to corporate social responsibility is to incorporate the CSR strategy directly into the organizations business strategy. For examples, many business including KPMG, PG and Starbucks has policy to only procure Fair Tra de tea and coffee. As we can see, ethical public relations is key to the organizations success as good ethics is simply good business. So it is worth to examine ethic in a greater detail. Ethic is defined as a value system for making decisions about what is right or wrong. The organisations conduct is not only measured against their consciences but also against societal and professional norm, so organizations, with different nations, industries and organization cultures, have different standards. Ethical choices are rarely black and white but sometimes it means a higher standard than the law. In a business perspective, business ethics and corporate governance refers to the system by which companies are controlled. Nowadays most companies have in-house codes of ethic and codes of social responsibility (Heath and Ryan, 1989). It has been argued that ethics is the duty to tell the truth. A study regarding ethical judgments concluded that regardless of peoples cultures and religions, honesty outweighed all other considerations. Honesty is particularly essential to the communication industry because dishonesty leads to lack of trust. When a PR practitioner is discovered telling a half-truths, he will be resented. According to the PR professional codes of conduct, telling the truth underpins all other practices (Keller, 1983:1). Beside triple bottom line reporting (3Ps) is becoming commonplace. The 3 pillars, People, Planet and Profits capture a new criterion of measuring organizational success: social, ecological and economical. Companies like Shell and McDonalds have issued Statements of Business Principles and Social Responsibility reports. To fulfill societys moral obligations, corporate social responsibility (CSR) is introduced. CSR policy is self-regulating mechanisms where businesses monitor and ensure it follow the law and ethical standards so business can embrace responsibility for the impact on the communities, environment and employees. Moreover, CSR-focused businesses would promote the iterest of the public by encouraging community development and abolishing practices which give damage. So it is said that CSR is the deliberate inclusion of public interest into corporate decision-making, and the honouring of a triple bottom line (Heath Ryan, 1989). What role should public relations play in improving levels of corporate social responsibility? There is a strong emphasis on the role Public relations play in implementing social responsibility among leading practitioners. Social responsibility has become a major reason for an organization to have a public relations function (Grunig and Hunt , 1984). Similarly, Harold Burson advocated that the public relations practitioners should provide qualitative evaluation of social trends, which helps developing policies and leading to a formal corporate response (Burson, 1974). Bernays also argue that, Public relations are the practice of social responsibility (Stone, 2005, p. 31). It has been pointed out that PR role is to serve not only their clients but the whole society at large (Kruckeberg and Starck, 1988). Social responsibility is understood as a concept of public relations, some scholars believe that with public relations, businesses can successfully implement social responsibility programmes. Thus PRs role of consciences in the decision-making is particularly important (Dennis, 1981). From the above review of related literature, it can be concluded that CRS obligation to serve the society applies to both individual PR practitioners and the professions as a whole. The welfare of the public should be taken into account when individual practitioner helps clients to solve problem. Meanwhile the associations of PR professionals should use their power collectively as moral agents for a better world (Clark, 2000). PR roles in improving the level of corporate social responsibility include the following. First PR need to improve the conduct of company by emphasizing the need for public approval. As a management function which looks after organizations reputation (McElreath 1996), to look for the company best interest, public relations practitioners should actively be engaged in the proposing and initiating of Corporate Social Responsibility. They should fight for CRS implementation with management. Knowledgeable staff is an important as they play a significant role in counseling management and ensuring that CRS programs maintain high professional standards (Tilson and Vance, 1985). It has been argued as the publics expect organizations to take on a greater role in solving community problems; they want to see businesses being ethical. PR professionals should go beyond advisory role and should regard themselves as the consciences of their organizations (Judds, 1989 Choi, 2005). It is true that th e most important thing is how a company conduct itself and deal with its publics. Communications is second to that. It is very important for the company to truly embrace CRS. Merely publicizing them is not effective as it has to be backed by appropriate behaviour. Also, public relation should serve the public interests by making all points of view communicative in the public. When CRS become part of the organization management initiative, PR as a communication function between an organization and its publics (Grunig and Hunt 1984, p.6 McElreath 1996), it has an important role to align corporate organization behaviour with stakeholder expectations. It should be done through a process of identifying public interest and potential CSR issues, prioritizing them, and closely monitoring their evolution, they can be managed-either by changing the companys behaviour or its stakeholders expectations, or both (Clark, 2002). Besides, Public relations should advance its professionalism by codifying and enforcing ethical conduct and standard of performance, serve our society by using mediation to replace misinformation and execute its social responsibility to promote human welfares. However, the practice of CSR is subject to much criticism. Critics argue that CSR is just a superficial window-dressing, they believe that companies like BP, British American Tobacco and McDonalds are using CSR programs to distract the public from ethical questions incurred in their operations. These corporations maximize their profit through raising their reputation. Another example, Shell has a much-publicized CSR policy and was a pioneer in triple bottom line reporting, but this did not prevent the 2004 scandal concerning its misreporting of oil reserves. It is important to note that CRS is an aid to an organizations mission as well as a guide to what the company stands for and will uphold to its consumers. Merely taking token gestures will only throw poor practice into sharper focus. Also, organization has to be flexible and see what legislators are up to and update the CSR programme in order to stay ahead as issues change with time and lastly CSR policies needs to be ensured that they are well implemented. It is believed that with well management, CSR can be an opportunity for a company to differentiate itself. Organizations can also benefit from the proliferation of annual list in major media. In a long run, managing relationships successfully required ethical conduct so effective public relations cannot be about deception and manipulations. Thus real public relations require honesty and a genuine concern for the needs and expectations of the public and it will build trust and credibility.

Comparing and Contrasting the Epics of Homer and Virgils Aeneid Essay

Comparing and Contrasting the Epics of Homer and Virgil's Aeneid Books I and II of Aeneid are an account of Virgil's adventures narrated by him. He includes the actions of the gods in his point of view. The tone of the epic is tragic and sympathetic. Books I-IV is Aeneas wanderings. "In the first half of the epic, Aeneas tells the story of the siege of Troy and his escape, causing Dido to love him. Venus and Juno contrive to isolate Dido and Aeneas in a cave during a hunting trip, and there the two lovers consummate their affair. Aeneas leaves Carthage for Italy at Mercury's prodding, causing the heartbroken Dido to kill herself. "(spark notes) Aeneid is considered a secondary epic more concerned more with duty than his own happiness. There is a simile in Book I of Aeneas as a hunter of deer and in Book IV where he is a figurative hunter of Dido. There are many recurring words in the Aeneid. There are also no repetitions as with Homer. The are many parallels in the epics of Homer and Virgil. The description of the storm in the Aeneid reminded me of the Odyssey. Aeneas watches as the storm approaches and throws his ship off course. Poseidon, the god of storms at sea, throws Odysseus ship off course many times. Both Aeneid and Odyssey make reference to their mothers. There are also various disguises in both epics. "Book 1 Aeneas and his Trojans are seven years into their journey home from the Trojan War to Italy when Juno, queen of the gods and arch-enemy of the Trojans, has Aeolus, god of the winds, blow up a violent storm which drives their ships off course. Aeneas, with some of the Trojan fleet, lands in North Africa Aeneas is a nearly broken man, but he pulls himself together and encourages his people. The scen... ...e ongoing construction of Carthage comes to a halt. Juno and Venus arrange for Dido and Aeneas to have to shelter together overnight in a storm-bound cave. Jupiter sends Mercury, the messenger of the god, to remind Aeneas of his duty to travel on to Italy. Aeneas is miserable, but accepts that he must follow the will of the gods. Dido begs him not to leave her, and ultimately commits suicide as the Trojans set sail, cursing them with her last breath and vowing her people to eternal war with those of Aeneas." (enotes) Sources Cited and Consulted Lawall, Sarah The Norton Anthology World Masterpieces Seventh Edition Volume 1 W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. Copyright 1984 Mandelbaum, Allen The Aeneid of Virgil, Bantam Books Publishing,Copyright 1971 http://www.enotes.com/aeneid/4131 (c)2000-2004 eNotes.com LLC http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/aeneid/facts.html

Problems and Aspirations of Youth Essay

Abstract Violent crimes such as murder, armed robbery, kidnapping and terrorism are the most inhumane crimes that continue to plague Nigeria. Lately, kidnappings for ransom and terrorism have taken the centre stage leading to bloodshed and economic set -backs. The causes are not farfetched as studies have associated rising youth unemployment to the increase in violent crimes. By using the deprivation theory proposed by Ted Gurr, this study has explored the proximate and ultimate causes involving the youths in violent crimes. If factors that create the feeling of deprivation and frustration created by unemployment are addressed, Nigeria‟s youths will not engage in violent crimes. Keywords: Youth; unemployment; poverty; violence; crime Introduction Creativity and high energy are the characteristics of young people in any nation and if the energy is channelled positively, it will greatly benefit not only the economic prosperity of nations but also enhance the moral values of the youth. When the same energy is used negatively, it will lead to social unrest and economic instability. Labour force of a country is used to measure unemployment and Feyisetan (1991) defines as a set of people or citizens of a country who are willing and are able to make available at any given point in time their efforts for gainful employment. Therefore unemployment is a situation where people are willing to work but could not find employment. According to the International Labour Organization people who are without work but available for and seekin g work; including those who have lost jobs and those who have voluntarily left jobs (World Bank, 1998). On the other hand, violent crime is defined as a crime in which the offender uses or threatens to use violent force upon the victim. This entails violence including robbery with and without arms (Wikipedia, 2010). Global unemployment remained stable at 8% between 2010 and 2011, according to Gallup surveys of 148 countries. Unemployment was highest in the Middle East and North Africa (22%) and sub-Saharan Africa 17% (Marlar, 2012). However, Nigeria‟s unemployment rate is above the sub-region‟s average that increased to 23.9% in 2011 compared with 21.1% in 2010 and 19.7% in 2009 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2012); and is projected to hit 25% by the end of 2012 (USA Embassy in Nigeria, 2012). According to the National Bureau of Statistics (2009:238; 2010:2; 2012), the national unemployment rates for Nigeria between 2000 and 2011 showed that the number of unemployed persons constituted 31.1% in 2000 and it reduced to 11.9% in 2005 but again increased to 23.9% in 2011. Nigeria has a youth population of 80 million, representing 60% of the total population with a growth rate of 2.6% per year and the national demography suggests that the youth population remains vibrant with an average annual entrant to the labour force is 1.8m between 2006 and 2011. Yet, majority of the youth has been either unemployed or under -employed between 2006 and 2011. The overall unemployment rose from 12.3% of Labour force to 23.9% (Awogbenle and Iwuamadi, 2010). A surge in unemployment was witnessed in 2009 due to global/local economic meltdown. The World Bank estimates that 74 million people between the ages of 15 and 24 are unemployed, which accounts for 41% of all unemployed person s (UNHabitat, 2008). From 1990-2000 youth unemployment data showed that the largest group of the unemployed were secondary school graduates. Also, 40% of unemployment rate were among urban youths aged 20 – 24 and 31% of the rate were among those aged 15-19. Two-thirds of the urban unemployed ranged from 15-24 years old. Moreover, the educated unemployed tended to be young males with few dependents (Okafor, 2011). In 2011, the situation became even more critical with 37.7% of Nigerians aged 15-24 and 22.4% of those between ages 25-44 were willing to work but did not get jobs. On average, youth unemployment rate in Nigeria is 46.5% in 2011 (BLG, 2012). As of 2009 when National Bureau of Statistics published unemployment rate at 19.7%, Issa Aremu the Deputy President of the National Labour Congress said, â€Å"Find out about the number of people who applied for the last recruitment by the Nigeria Immigration Service and the Customs Service. When more than a hundred thousand people apply for just about 3000 vacancies, then you should know whether the figures are true† (Ekott, 2010). Unemployment appears to be the root cause o f violence in Nigeria. Research suggests that unemployed youths are disproportionately more likely to be perpetrators, as well as victims of crime and violence (Okafor, 2011). The growing gap between the rich and poor affects the society through increased violence. The self employed are in quandary as scant infrastructure makes it impossible for them to ply their trade (Okafor, 2011). This is exac erbated by political corruption, poverty, poor governance, increasing population, and lack of policy initiatives and implementation to some extent encouraged criminal groups to thrive across Nigeria. This paper examines how youth unemployment contributes to violent crimes across Nigeria. Deprivation Theory of Ted Gurr This classical theory explains why people engage in violence (riots, rebellion, coups, criminal activities etc.). It examines the psychological causes involving frustration and aggression as the primary source of human capacity for violence. Frustration is neither necessary nor sufficient ly leads to violence but greed may drive to violence. Frustration is a much stronger motivating force and prolonged frustration may cause greater probability for aggression. Relative deprivation is the discrepancy between what people think they deserve and what they actually think they can get (Gurr, 1970). It is noteworthy that Gurr does not look to a more absolute or objective indicator of deprivation as the source of violence. People can get used to a bad state of affairs, even one that offers so little access to life-sustaining resources that members of the group are starving or dying of remediable diseases or exposure. However, if there is a significant d iscrepancy between what they think they deserve and what they think they will get, there is a likelihood of rebellion. Gurr posits this to be the case because there is a feeling that their expectation cannot be met if the current statuesque is maintained. The first situation may be a desperate one, but it is the se cond that will be frustrating. So frustration produces aggression at individual, group and societal levels. This theory could be used to link rising number of unemployed youths and violent crimes in Nigeria. A country that produce thousands of university graduate every year without commensurate employment opportunities may be creating a fertile ground for a feeling of frustration among these unemployed graduates. Naturally, there is a feeling of joy and great expectations when a student graduates from a university- these expectations gradually fades away and is replaced by feeling of frustration after some years of joblessness caused by little opportunity the society offers the young graduate. As frustration prolongs and the feeling of deprivation of what that is expected increases, there is a greater probability that the individual or people can resort to illegitimate activities in order to actualise their expectations in the society. The rise in violent crimes (robbery, kidnapping, thuggery, terrorism) committed by youths is a sign of „gap‟ in the society. The society already has expectations for individuals and established means of achieving them. When the means are limited as the youth unemployme nt is 46.5% in 2011, people are forced to achieve the goals through illegal means to fulfil societal expectations. Kidnappings are on the increase across Nigeria and the unemployed youths view the business lucrative. They are available for recruitment by p oliticians. In the Northern part, they are recruited both by politicians and religious groups to be used in political, religious and terrorism acts. In the SW Nigeria, they find easy employment in petty criminal activities. The culture must at least accept , if not approve, violent action as a means to an end. This could be the reason why suicide bombing is exclusive to the Northern part of the country as violence is encouraged by some Islamic sects. Political violence is also likely if the current leadershi p and or the socio-economic and political system are seen as illegitimate. Causes of Youth Unemployment in Nigeria The level of unemployment is highly dependent on the overall status of the economy (Awogbenle and Iwuamadi, 2010). Despite its riches from o il economy, employment in Nigeria is actually falling. The years of corruption, civil war, military rule, and mismanagement have hindered economic growth. Nigeria is endowed with diverse and infinite resources, both human and material but years of neglige nce and adverse policies have led to the under-utilization of these resources. These resources have not been effectively utilized in order to yield maximum economic benefits. These are primary causes of unemployment; however s cholars have identified other causes of unemployment as well ( Adebayo, 1999; Alanana, 2003; Echebiri, 2005; Ayinde, 2008; Morphy, 2008; Awogbenle and Iwuamadi, 2010; and Anyadike et al, 2012) . The first is population growth (140,431,790 as per 2006 census) and is projected to be over 1 80 million by 2020 if the annual growth rate of 3.2% continues (National Population Commission and ICF Macro, 2009). While the population increases, the number of industries growth is dwindling and if nothing serious is done, both population and unemployme nt will continue to rise. The second is outdated school curricula and lack of employable skills: Some scholars have argued that as far as the formal sector is concerned, the average Nigerian graduate is not employable therefore, does not possess the skill s needed by the employers (Anyadike et al, 2012). This is due to the curricula of most Nigerian schools that do not include entrepreneur skill acquisition to benefit job seekers. The third is adoption of untimely economic policy measures that contributed to the demise of small scale and cottage industries operated in both formal and informal sectors. Following the introduction of Structural Adjustment Program in September 1986 that ushered in liberalization, deregulation and devaluation program of the domes tic currency, many of the teething domestic firms collapsed that resulted in serious job losses (Bello, 2003). The fourth is over emphasis on university certificates and neglect of skill acquisition trainings that contributes to youth unemployment. According to Manning and Junankar (1998), the total number of graduates produced in Nigeria was 73,339 in 1986/1987 that rose to 131,016 in 1996/1997. Over 97 universities occur in Nigeria with a demand for higher education while there is problem of unemployment. The reality is that the economy does not have the capacity to absorb all unemployed graduates because over 800 industries and 37 factories were closed down in 2009 alone (Anyadike et al, 2012). Nigeria’s Unemployment and Crimes Security is a contextual issue which no state in the international system consigns to the periphery; it is a core-value that makes the state relevant in the international system (Ndifon, et al. 2012). Death rate attributable to violence in Africa is estimated at 60.9 per 100,000 p eople more than twice the global rate (WHO 2004a). Crime and violence have been increasing in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa among unemployed young people. The causes are not farfetched as studies have associated rising youth unemployment to increase of violent crime in Nigeria. The accelerating level of prostitution, armed robbery, rape, terrorism and all facets of violence can be largely attributed to the incidence of unemployment. Growth has not been in line with the aspirations of the people and has not been driven by higher productivity. The public perception is that there has been little job creation. Many young people who fail to gain employment have become a burden to the employed that bear the re sponsibility of meeting the needs of millions of educated but increasing frustrated group, a wasting generation. The problem of violent crimes in Nigeria has been exacerbated by the high rate of unemployment and economic hardship which has pushed many jobless youths some of whom are graduates into various deadly crimes (Edward, 2011). A 2009 World Bank report on ‘Employment and Growth’, warned that, â€Å"The share of young people between the ages of 15 and 24 outside the labour force is growing, despite the country’s strong growth performance over the years†. Mass sacking in the Central Bank of Nigeria affected 7,500 banking jobs (Allafrica, 2010). The UN-Habitat study on crimes and violence stressed that socio -economic inequality and the lack of opportunities for social advancement and employment are some of th e root causes of crime and violence. Children and youth from disadvantaged families are vulnerable to fall prey to criminal networks. Of the estimated 1 billion people living in slums, over half are under the age of 25, and 40% are estimated to be under the age of 19. They are the primary victims of social exclusion through unemployment, lack of access to health and education (UN -Habitat, 2008). Furthermore, an empirical survey of Children and Youth in Organized Armed Violence in Nigeria, reported that disenchantment and frustration of young people due to mass poverty and unemployment, has increased the number of aggrieved youths and resulted in the emergence of „area boys‟ and Almajiris who target the very society that alienated them (Ibrahim, 2006). The survey concluded that armed militant groups in Nigeria namely Bakassi Boys, O‟ odua Peoples Congress (OPC) and Egbesu Boys were made up of youths within 16 – 17 years (40%), 18 – 19 years (10%), 20 – 21 years (20%), and 20 – 23 years (20%). Approximately 60% of them were unemployed (Awogbenle and Iwuamadi, 2010). Bennel (2000) argued that urban society is becoming increasingly criminalized, especially with the proliferation of youth gangs. Neither homes, nor markets are safe in Nigeria because of frequent o ccurrence of armed robbery incidents. Unemployment problem, which now seems beyond remedy, has produced army of idle hands and some of them have decided to punish the society that fails to provide them with means of livelihood and dignity by robbing its members of their property at gunpoint (Ideyi, 2005). The police cannot perform effectively because they are overstretched by the amount of cases that awaits them daily, and is worsened by outdated instruments they use that are no match to the modern sophisticated weapons used by the criminals. The Research Director of the Nigerian Economic Summit Group (NESG), Dr Sope Wiliams Elegbe revealed that: â€Å"The increasing poverty in Nigeria is accompanied by increasing unemployment. Unemployment is higher in the nort h than in the south. Mix this situation with radical Islam, which promises a better life for martyrs, and you can understand the growing violence in the north. Government statistics show that the northern states have the highest proportion of uneducated persons. If you link a lack of education and attendant lack of opportunities to a high male youth population, you can imagine that some areas are actually a breeding ground for terrorism† (Oxford Research Group, 2012). The Inspector General of Police, Muhammed Abubakar, has called on the three tiers of government to tackle unemployment in order to reduce crime rate in the country. He expressed concern at the rate youths were resorting to crime as an alternative means of survival due to unemployment: â€Å"We have a lot of graduates and even those who have not attended any school who have nothing to do. It becomes worrisome, when you go round this country and you see the faces of unemployed persons. You begin to wonder that we just have to do what we have to do at the level of federal, state and local governments to begin to plan and put policies in place for the employment of these persons†. (Cruise news, 2012) Conclusion No nation can achieve growth in an atmosphere of violent crimes. The role of Nigeria‟s government must include the formulation of policies and laws that could help improve the economic and social wellbeing of its citizens and deter criminality. There is a need to increase jobs through small enterprises and poverty alleviation schemes. Economic gr owth in Nigeria is not the only solution to curb unemployment as the official statistics illustrate that previous unemployment did not decline economic growth. Other solutions such as the provision of right skills to youth should be given an importance. The study concludes that feeling of deprivation produce frustration and could be expressed through aggression. Therefore if factors that are responsible for youth unemployment in Nigeria are addressed, violent crimes will be reduced. References Adebayo A (1999). Youth Unemployment and National Directorate of Employment Self Employment Programmes. Niger. J. Econ. And Soc. Stud. 41(1): 81-102. Alanana OO (2003). Youth Unemployment in Nigeria: Some Implications for the Third Millennium. Global J. Soc. Sci. 2(1):21-26. Anyadike Nkechi, Emeh Ikechukwu EJ and Ukah Finian Okechukwu (2012). Entrepreneurship development and employment generation in Nigeria: Problems and prospects. Journal of Education and General Studies Vol. 1(4) pp. 088-102. Awogbenle, A.C. & Iwuamadi, K.C. (2010). Youth Unemployment: Entrepreneurship Development Programme as an Intervention Mechanism. African Journal of Business Management, 4(6), 831-835. Ayinde OE(2008). Empirical Analysis of Agricultural Growth and Unemployment in Nigeria. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 3(7):465-468. Cruise news, (2012). To fight crime in Nigeria, we must first fight Unemployment. Available on http://www.cruisenigeria.com Bello, T. (2003). Attacking Unemployment Hurdles in the Fragile Economies of the Sub – Saharan Africa: The Experience of Nigeria. A Paper Presented at the – Economics for the Future – Conference; On the Occasion of the Celebration of 100 Years of Cambridge Economics; Cambridge, United Kingdom Bennel, P, (2000). Improving Youth Livelihood in SS.A Report to the International Development Center. BGL, (2012). Economic Note: The Nigeria’s Paradox of Growth amidst High Poverty Incidence. Retrieved from www.bglgroupng.com Echebiri, R.N. (2005). Characteristics and Determinants of Urban Youth Unemployment in Umuahia, Nigeria: Implications for Rural Development and Alternative Labor Market Variables. A Paper presented at the ISSER/Cornell/World Bank conference on â€Å"Shared Growth in Africa† held in Accra, Ghana, July 21-22. Edward Uzoma Ezedike, (2011). Violent Crimes, Economic Development and the Morality of Capital Punishment in Nigeria: A Retentionist Perspective. Retrieved from www.transcampus.org/journals Ekott, I. (2010). Statistics Bureau puts Nigeria unemployment rate at 19.7 percent . Next News. Retrieved from http://234next.com/csp/cms/sites/Next/Home/index.csp Feyisetan BJ (1991). Population growth and the labour force, a study of relationships. Paper presented at a seminar on population and development, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Nigeria June 25-28. Ideyi, N. (2005). The Root Cause of Violence in Nigeria: The Niger Delta Crisis, a Reference Point Manning, C. & Junankar, P.N. (1998). Choosy Youth or Unwanted Youth: A Survey of Unemployment. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 34(1), 55-93. Marlar Jenny, (2012). Global Unemployment at 8% in 2011. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/gwt/x?hl=en&u=http://www.gallup.com/poll/153884/globalune mployment2011.aspx&client=msucweb&q=Unemployment+rate+in+Africa+and+sub+S aharan+Africa&sa=X&ei=GHEOUPHUDmw2wW_j4HYCA&ved=0CCQQFjAJ Morphy R. (2008). Nigeria: Youth Unemployment, Poverty – a Time Bomb for Country. Leadership, Wednesday, 27 August National Bureau of Statistics. (2009). Social Statistics in Nigeria. Abuja: The NBS Publication. Retrieved from www.nigerianstat.gov.ng National Bureau of Statistics. (2010). Statistical News: Labor Force Statistics No. 476. Abuja: The NBS Publication. Retrieved from www.nigerianstat.gov.ng National Bureau of Statistics, (2012). Labour Force Statistics. Retrieved from www.nigerianstat.gov.ng National Population Commission and ICF Macro. (2009). Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2008. Abuja, Nigeria: National Ndifon, C.O, Apori, K.A and Ndifon, R.A. (2012). Human Traffickin g in Nigeria: A Metaphor for Human Rights, Crime and Security Violations. American Journal of Social Issues & Humanities (ISSN: 2276 – 6928) Vol.2(3) pp. 84-99. Available on http://www.ajsih.org Okafor, E.E. (2011). Youth Unemployment and Implications for Stability of Democracy In Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa. Vol. 13, No.1, 2011 ISSN: 15205509 320 | A j a e g b u  ©AJSIH Vol.2 No.5. (September 2012) 315-321 American Journal of Social Issues & Humanities Vol.2 No.5. (September 2012) Oxford Research Group, (2012). Nigeria: The Generic Context of the Boko Haram Violence. Monthly Global Security Briefing. Retrieved from www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sites/default/files/AprEn12.pdf Population Commission and ICF Macro, (2010). Nigeria: Unemployment – Paradox of Growth. Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/nigeria/ Ted Gurr . Why Men Rebel. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1970. UN-Habitat, (2008). Crime and violence versus employment opportunities in cities and towns. 2nd African Minister ial Conference on Housing and Urban Development. Abuja, Nigeria. Retrieved from www.unhabitat.org United States Embassy in Nigeria, (2012). Nigerian Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http://nigeria.usembassy.gov WHO (World Health Organization), 2004a. African Leaders Call for Increased Efforts to Prevent Violence. Press release, July 26. Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville. Retrieved from www.afro.who.int/note_press/2003/pr20030726.html Wikipedia,

Upper Lobectomy

Upper Lobectomy Krysten Miller Pennsylvania College of Technology ?IntroductionAn Upper Lobectomy is the removal of the superior lobe from a lung. This occurs when a neoplasm is confined to a specific area and hilar nodes are not involved. This procedure may be done to remove the spread of cancer, abnormal abscess, or infection within the lungs. The lungs are located below the clavicle and above the diaphragm. They consist of five lobes, both sets being separated by fissure. The right side has three lobes known as superior, middle, and inferior. While the left has superior and inferior. The left side only has two lobes because the anatomical position of the heart needs room to rest. Connected to the lungs are ancillary structures, such as, bronchus, pulmonary artery and vein, and lymphatic vessels. These structures enter at the hilum where the lungs are slightly concave. The surgical goal is to remove the neoplasm without harming other structures. Signs/Symptoms/Risks Generally, signs and symptoms may vary depending on the diagnosis. For example, signs and symptoms of TB are pain in chest, fatigue, fever/chills, or mucus and blood in saliva. Whereas signs and symptoms of cancer consist of a reoccurring respiratory infection, chest pain, weakness in the upper body, and trouble swallowing, change in bowel movement (American Cancer Society, 2018). In most cases signs and symptoms are very common and testing will need done for diagnosis. If these signs and symptoms are noticed a doctor should be consulted and a check-up be made. Diagnosis/Alternatives In addition, a neoplasm may be diagnosed through a Computerized Tomography (CT) or a Magnetic Resonance Image (MRI). During a CT scan small lesions may be identified, whereas, MRI may reveal a mass or nodule. If a spot occurs, a tissue biopsy may be done to identify what the mass or lesion may be. Another diagnosis is sputum cytology. During this assessment the sputum is looked under a microscope for cancer cells to be identified (Mayo Clinic, 2018). Once diagnosed alternative therapy may be assessed if surgery is too much to handle. These sources include radiation, chemotherapy, radiosurgery, and drug therapy. Overall, these alternatives use multiple drugs and or high—power of radiation to kill and reduce the neoplasm within the lungs. Alternative medication to help those with signs and symptoms involve acupuncture, hypnosis, massage, meditation, and yoga. These forms of medicine help relax the tissue and relieve pain within the area. When alternatives are not an option, and the aggression is too far surgery is the option. Surgery Set Up To begin, the set up contains a back table and mayo stand. The back table will consist of three sections: drapes, instruments, and sharps. Drapes will be towels and an adhesive back drape. Electrocautery and suction, as well as, other items that need access to the patient may be placed here as well. Instruments are then placed on the field. Two main trays will be placed along with a variety of other tools. A thoracotomy set will include useful instruments that aid in removal of a rib and exposure to repair the underneath organs. A general vascular set will also be available. This set includes additional cardiovascular instruments that may be useful if needed. In addition, various sizes of hemoclips are separate and kept for hold. Once instruments are placed, sharps and basins are then placed. In the top corner an emission basin and bowl are placed for fluids. Sponges in the form of kitners, laps, and 4Ãâ€"4 are placed on the field. A suture counter is then placed in the corner. This is filled with silk suture ties, polypropylene suture, and pledgets. A number 10, 11, and 15 knife blades are then loaded on a handle. Once the back table is complete with all needed instruments the mayo may be addressed. The common instruments include knife, tissue forceps, and metz and scissors to dissect to operative area. Hemostats, Kocher's and Allis's may be place to grab tissue and retract along with hemostasis. Multiple retractors and elevators may be used either sorted on the mayo or back table. Once the sterile field is prepped, the patient is retrieved and prepped. Patient Preparation Following set-up, the patient is brought into the room. They are transferred to the OR bed and position aids are placed. Antiembolitic hoses are placed on the legs to help with blood flow. Aesthesia may apply Swan-Ganz and CVP lines which allow direct contact to the heart (Goldman, 2008). Once general anesthesia is applied with endotracheal intubation, the patient is placed in lateral position with the surgical site up. During this time a catheter may be placed, as these procedures may be length if problems occur. Padded kidney rests or pillows are placed around the torso to stabilize. The unaffected arm is placed on an arm board while the other is rested above on a padded mayo. The lower leg is slightly bent with a pillow placed on top and the top leg laid flat, this is done to keep the patient from rotating. Pads are placed around the ankles and other bony areas for cushion. During this time, it is needed to be confirmed that blood has been ordered and available for this case. Prep/Draping Once the patient is positioned, prepping and draping of the surgical area may begin. When prepping cleansing for a posterolateral incision is made. Starting at the mid-thorax region, extending from the shoulder, to the iliac crest and down bilaterally. Within the prep the axilla region should be included as well. After the prep is dried, drapes may be placed. Folded towels are placed in a square around the incision site. Towel clips are placed at each inside corner to hold the towels together. An adhesive drape is then placed and unfolded across the patient to create the complete sterile field. Two suction tubes should be thrown up at this time along with any other cords that need to be thrown off. Surgery Following draping, a time out may occur and surgery begins. A posterolateral incision is made into the fourth intercostal space of the ribs with a #10 blade. Rib spreaders are placed to open the ribs and the pleura is cut. The anterosuperior portion of the hilar pleura is then incised and then separated making room to open the thorax. Once opened, the likelihood of the rib instruments being reused are slim and may be removed from the surgical field and onto back table (Frey & Ross, 2014). The upper and lower lobe fissure is opened, and dissection down to the pulmonary artery begins. During this time the surgical technologist should keep count of how much irrigation is used for the account of potential blood replacement. If sponges are to be weighed they must be fully saturated before throwing off. The second count may begin at this time. The pulmonary artery and vein branches are identified. Once identified they are separated. The surgical technologist should move quickly to access suture and assess double ligation of artery and vein. They are then divided. Blunt dissection is then used to free the upper lobe bronchus. It is either clamped with a bronchus clamp or a stapler. Sutures and stapler should be prepared prior to the step, bronchus is divided quickly. The clamp or stapler should be placed 2 cm form the main bronchial trunk (Frey & Ross, 2014). Entry to the bronchial tree changes wound class and results in contaminated instruments. At that time contaminated items shall be separated. The bronchus is then closed with a nonabsorbable suture or staples. Closely watching the surgeon and his assistance allows for anticipation at this time. A pleural flap is secured with sutures over the bronchial stump and the remaining lobes are checked for leakage of air. Leakages are checked by filling the thorax with body-temperature irrigation. The wound is irrigated and chest tubes of sort are placed in the thorax. The lines form the tubes must be hooked with a closed drainage unit and immediately turned on to prevent clotting. Final counts are made while tubes are placed. An injection of 0.25% Marcaine is made for postoperative pain control prior to closure. The fascia is closed with a 2-0 Vicryl and the skin is closed with staples. Dressing is a nonadherent contact layer, may vary depending on the doctor preference. The surgical technologist should not break scrub until the patient has left the operating room. Outcome Following surgery, the patient is then transported to the CCU. The endotracheal tube is still attached at this time to check for postop ventilation and proper breathing. The patient will stay in the hospital 7 to 10 days. If no complications they may leave and have a full recovery. Additional treatments may be essential such as chemotherapy and radiation. These treatments can help determine when normal activity can return. If complications occur hospitalization is longer. This may be a surgical site infection, hemorrhage, atelectasis, pneumothorax, embolus, edema, etc. During this time the patient will be monitored and possible emergency surgery may be done. If no complications occur during surgery this is a Class 1: clean procedure. Conclusion To conclude, an upper lobectomy is the surgical removal of a lobe caused by an abnormal growth or infection. It can be diagnosed through imaging or a tissue biopsy. Alternatives before surgery are a variety of drug therapy and active medicines. Once these are out of the question surgery is an option. The patient is then prepped and assessed for surgery. The lobe is removed and the patient is sent to recovery. They will then be hospitalized for 7 to 10 days and sent home if no other complications occur. ? ReferencesFrey, K. B., & Ross, T. (2014). Surgical technology for the surgical technologist: a positive care approach. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning.Goldman, M. A. (2008). Pocket guide to the operating room. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co.Lung WebMD. (2018). Cancer Symptoms: What You Should Know. Retrieved April 22, 2018, from https://www.webmd.com/lung-cancer/understanding-lung-cancer-symptomsAmerican Cancer Society. (2018). Managing Cancer-related Side Effects. Retrieved April 25, 2018, from https://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatments-and-side-effects/physical-side- effects.html